The Clipper Ship 'Flying Cloud' off,, on the southern English coast. Painting by James E.

Maritime history is the study of human activity. It covers a broad thematic element of that often uses a global approach, although national and regional histories remain predominant. As an academic subject, it often crosses the boundaries of standard, focusing on understanding humankind's various relationships to the,, and major of the globe. History records and interprets past events involving ships, shipping, navigation, and seafarers. Maritime history is the broad overarching subject that includes,, international,, the history of, ship design,, the history of, the history of the various maritime-related sciences (,,, etc.), sea exploration, maritime economics and trade,,,, the history of and aids to navigation, maritime themes in literature, maritime themes in art, the social history of and passengers and sea-related communities.

There are a number of approaches to the field, sometimes divided into two broad categories: Traditionalists, who seek to engage a small audience of other academics, and Utilitarians, who seek to influence policy makers and a wider audience. Contents • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Historiography [ ] Historians from many lands have published monographs, popular and scholarly articles, and collections of archival resources. A leading journal is International Journal of Maritime History, a fully refereed scholarly journal published twice a year by the International Maritime Economic History Association. Based in Canada with an international editorial board, it explores the maritime dimensions of economic, social, cultural, and environmental history. For a broad overview, see the four-volume encyclopedia edited by, (Oxford, 2007).

It contains over 900 articles by 400 scholars and runs 2900 pages. Other major reference resources are Spencer Tucker, ed., Naval Warfare: An International Encyclopedia (3 vol. ABC-CLIO, 2002) with 1500 articles in 1231, pages, and I.

Dear and Peter Kemp, eds., Oxford Companion to Ships and the Sea (2nd ed. 2005) with 2600 articles in 688 pages. Typically, studies of merchant shipping and of defensive navies are seen as separate fields. Inland waterways are included within 'maritime history,' especially inland seas such as the Great Lakes of North America, and major navigable rivers and canals worldwide. One approach to maritime history writing has been nicknamed 'rivet counting' because of a focus on the minutiae of the vessel.

But revisionist scholars are creating new turns in the study of maritime history. This includes a post-1980s turn towards the study of human users of ships (which involves sociology, cultural geography, gender studies and narrative studies); and post-2000 turn towards seeing sea travel as part of the wider history of transport and mobilities. This move is sometimes associated with and studies, but most recently has emerged from the International Association for the History of Transport, Traffic and Mobilities (T2M) See also: below Ancient times [ ].

Indigenous Americans making a dugout canoe, a practice which they had done for centuries. In the time before, the first boats are presumed to have been, developed independently by various stone age populations, and used for coastal fishing and travel. The of the are very skilled at crafting wood.

559X Las Flores del Mal, Charles Baudelaire, Enrique Lopez Castellon 7720 Overthrow, Stephen. Industrialization and Imperialism: The Making of the European Global Order. Change in Europe's relationship with world. Change in goods – no longer spices/mfg goods, but natural resources for machines; 2. Trade balance shifts. Need for markets for Europe mfg products; b.

Best known for up to 80 feet (24 m) tall, they also construct dugout canoes over 60 feet (18 m) long for everyday use and ceremonial purposes. The earliest seaworthy boats may have been developed as early as 45,000 years ago, according to one hypothesis [ ] explaining the habitation of [ ]. The had knowledge of construction. This is governed by the of. According to the historian, sent out an expedition of, which in three years sailed from the around to the mouth of the.

Some current historians believe Herodotus on this point, even though Herodotus himself was in disbelief that the Phoenicians had accomplished the act. Main article: China's multi-mast sailing were carrying over 200 people as early as 200 AD and by the medieval period were particularly massive.The Southeast Asian,, and Northern European concurrently developed oceangoing vessels and depended heavily upon them for travel and population movements prior to 1000 AD. In early modern and the -sail ship known as the was used on the waters of the, Indian Ocean, and. The was the chief tool of in early maritime history. It was invented in and developed.

In, the engineer (c. 200-265 AD) invented the, a wheeled device employing a gear that allowed a fixed to point always in the southern. The needle for was not attested until the in 1088 AD by (1031–1095), who was also the first to document the concept of to discern a compass' magnetic declination from the physical) ).

By at least 1117 AD, the Chinese used a magnetic needle that was submersed in a bowl of water, and would point in the southern cardinal direction. The first use of a magnetized needle for seafaring navigation in Europe was written of by, circa 1190 AD. Around 1300 AD, the pivot-needle dry-box compass was invented in Europe, its cardinal direction pointed north, similar to the modern-day mariners compass. There was also the addition of the compass-card in Europe, which was later adopted by the Chinese through contact with in the 16th century.

Ships and vessels [ ]. Main articles: and Various ships were in use during the. The was a type of ship that was developed over a period of centuries and perfected by its most famous user, the, in approximately the 9th century. The ships were, utilizing overlapping wooden strakes.

The, a relative of the longship, was a type of cargo vessel. It differed from the longship in that it was larger and relied solely on its sail for propulsion.

The was a design which is believed to have evolved from (or at least been influenced by) the longship, and was in wide use by the 12th century. It too used the clinker method of construction.

The was a ship invented in and used in the Mediterranean from the 13th century. Unlike the and, it used a method of construction.

It could be either ( Caravela Redonda) or ( Caravela Latina). The was another type of ship invented in the Mediterranean in the 15th century.

It was a larger vessel than the caravel. Columbus's ship, the, was a famous example of a carrack. Arab age of discovery [ ]. Main article: The maintained and expanded a wide trade network across parts of, and. This helped establish the Arab Empire (including the,, and ) as the world's leading extensive economic power throughout the 7th-13th centuries.

The Belitung is the oldest discovered Arabic ship to reach the Asian sea, dating back over 1000 years. Apart from the, and, navigable rivers in the Islamic regions were uncommon, so transport by sea was very important. And navigational sciences were highly developed, making use of a magnetic and a rudimentary instrument known as a, used for and for measuring the and of the. When combined with detailed maps of the period, sailors were able to sail across rather than skirt along the coast. According to the political scientist Hobson, the origins of the ship, used for long-distance travel by the Spanish and Portuguese since the 15th century, date back to the qarib used by explorers by the 13th century. Hanseatic League [ ]. Historical in the, the, the, and the.

During the, the Somali and of,,, and their respective ports flourished. They had a lucrative foreign commerce with ships sailing to and coming from,,,,, and as far away as. In the 16th century, noted that many ships from the in what is modern-day sailed to Mogadishu with and, for which they in return received, and. Barbosa also highlighted the abundance of,,,, and on the coastal markets, which generated enormous wealth for the merchants. In the period, successor states of the and began to flourish in Somalia who continued the seaborne trade established by previous Somali empires.

The rise of the 19th century in particular saw a rebirth in Somali maritime enterprise. During this period, the Somali agricultural output to markets was so great that the coast of Somalia came to be known as the Grain Coast of and. Age of Discovery [ ]. Main article: The was a period from the early 15th century and continuing into the early 17th century, during which ships traveled around the world to search for new trading routes and partners to feed burgeoning in Europe. Historians often refer to the 'Age of Discovery' as the pioneer Portuguese and later Spanish long-distance maritime travels in search of alternative to ', moved by the trade of, and. In the process, Europeans encountered peoples and mapped lands previously unknown to them.

Was a and who is one of several historical figures credited as the. It is generally believed that he was born in, although other theories and possibilities exist. Columbus' voyages across the began a effort at and of the. While history places great significance on his first voyage of 1492, he did not actually reach the until his third voyage in 1498. Likewise, he was not the earliest European explorer to reach the Americas, as there are accounts of prior to 1492. Nevertheless, Columbus's voyage came at a critical time of growing and between seeking wealth from the establishment of and. Therefore, the period before 1492 is known as.

Was a and commonly credited as one of the first to land on the mainland aboard the in 1497. Was an and may have sailed with his father John Cabot in May 1497. John Cabot and perhaps Sebastian, sailing from, took their small fleet along the coasts of a.

There is much controversy over where exactly Cabot landed, but two likely locations that are often suggested are and Newfoundland. Cabot and his crew (including perhaps Sebastian) mistook this place for China, without finding the passage to the east they were looking for.

Some scholars maintain that the name America comes from, a Bristol merchant and customs officer, who is claimed on very slender evidence to have helped finance the Cabot voyages. Was a who first explored and described the Gulf of St-Lawrence and the shores of the, which he named. Was a explorer and navigator.

Probably between 1563 and 1574 he discovered the west of,. He also discovered the islands of and (1574). Among the other famous of the period were,,,,,,,,,,,,, Captain,, and.

Replica of the Dubrovnik Carrack or (15th and 16th century). Was an -born of and of the discoveries of her representatives during the. He wrote the first accounts of explorations in and in a series of letters and reports, grouped in the original publications of 1511–1530 into sets of ten chapters called 'decades.' His Decades are thus of great value in the history of geography and discovery.

His De Orbe Novo (published 1530; 'On the New World') describes the first contacts of Europeans and and contains, for example, the first reference to. Was an writer, and is principally remembered for his efforts in promoting and supporting the settlement of by the through his works, notably Divers Voyages Touching the Discoverie of America (1582) and The Principal Navigations, Voiages, Traffiques and Discoueries of the English Nation (1598–1600). European expansion [ ]. Main article: Although Europe is the world's second-smallest in terms of area, it has a very long coastline, and has arguably been influenced more by its maritime history than any other continent. Europe is uniquely situated between several navigable and intersected by navigable running into them in a way which greatly facilitated the influence of maritime traffic and commerce. When the and then the were developed by the, European thoughts returned to the fabled East.

These explorations have a number of causes. Believe the main reason the Age of Exploration began was because of a severe shortage of in Europe. The European economy was dependent on gold and silver currency, but low domestic supplies had plunged much of Europe into a recession. Another factor was the centuries long conflict between the Iberians and the Muslims to the south. The were controlled by the after the took control of in 1453, and they barred Europeans from those trade routes.

The ability to outflank the Muslim states of North Africa was seen as crucial to their survival. At the same time, the Iberians learnt much from their Arab neighbours. The carrack and caravel both incorporated the Mediterranean that made ships far more manoeuvrable. It was also through the Arabs that was rediscovered, for the first time giving European sailors some idea of the shape of Africa and Asia.

European colonization [ ]. Main articles: and In 1492, reached the, after which European exploration and colonization rapidly expanding. The post-1492 era is known as the period. The first conquests were made by the, who quickly conquered most of and and large parts of.

The, and conquered islands in the, many of which had already been conquered by the Spanish or depopulated by disease. Early European colonies in North America included, the British settlements in and, French settlements in and, and Dutch settlements in. Revived its former colonies in Greenland from the 18th until the 20th century, and also colonised a few of the Virgin Islands. World Colonization 1492–2007 From its very outset, Western colonialism was operated as a joint public-private venture.

Columbus' voyages to the Americas were partially funded by Italian investors, but whereas the Spanish state maintained a tight rein on trade with its colonies (by law, the colonies could only trade with one designated port in the mother country and treasure was brought back in special ), the English, French and Dutch granted what were effectively trade to such as the and the. In the, there was the proliferation of conflicting claims to territory.

By the 15th century, explored the coast in search of a water route to. These expeditions were mostly conducted by the, who had been given papal authority to exploit all non- lands of the. The Europeans set up coastal colonies to prosecute the, but the interior of the continent remained unexplored until the 19th century. This was a cumulative period that resulted in European colonial rule in Africa and altered the future of the African continent. Traces its roots back to the late 15th century with a series of voyages that sought a sea passage to India in the hope of establishing direct trade between Europe and Asia in spices.

Before 1500 European economies were largely self-sufficient, only supplemented by minor trade with Asia and Africa. Within the next century, however, European and Asian economies were slowly becoming integrated through the rise of new global trade routes; and the early thrust of European political power, commerce, and culture in Asia gave rise to a growing trade in lucrative commodities—a key development in the rise of today's modern world capitalist economy. Were set up by several European nations beginning at the beginning of the 16th century. Rivalry between reigning European powers saw the entry of the Dutch, British and French among others. The followed by ships sailing between England and Australia/New Zealand.

During this time, the was established by between and the, and. The route ran from west to east through the, in order to make use of the strong westerly winds of the. Many ships and sailors were lost in the heavy conditions along the route, particularly at, which the clippers had to round on their return to Europe. In September 1578, Sir, in the course of his circumnavigation of the world, discovered Cape Horn. This discovery went unused for some time, as ships continued to use the known passage through the Strait of Magellan. By the early 17th century, the Dutch merchant, together with navigator, set off to investigate Drake's suggestion of a route to the south of Tierra del Fuego.

At the time it was discovered, the Horn was believed to be the southernmost point of Tierra del Fuego; the unpredictable violence of weather and sea conditions in the Drake Passage made exploration difficult, and it was only in 1624 that the Horn was discovered to be an island. It is an interesting testament to the difficulty of conditions there that Antarctica, only 650 kilometres (400 mi) away across the Drake Passage, was discovered as recently as 1820, despite the passage having been used as a major shipping route for 200 years. The clipper route fell into commercial disuse with the introduction of, and the opening of the and.

End of exploration [ ] The age of exploration is generally said to have ended in the early 17th century. By this time European vessels were well enough built and their navigators competent enough to travel to virtually anywhere on the planet. Exploration, of course, continued. The Arctic and Antarctic seas were not explored until the 19th century. Age of Sail [ ]. Main article: The Age of Sail originates from ancient seafaring exploration, during the rise of ancient civilizations. Including, the and the, the has been an important since the era of the coastal sailing vessels from possibly as early as the 3rd millennium BC, certainly the late 2nd millennium BC up to and including the later days of.

By the time of, several well-established combined land-sea trade routes depended upon through the Sea around the rough inland to its north. These routes usually began in the with via historic (Bharakuccha), traversed past the inhospitable coast of today's then split around into two streams north into the and thence into the, or south into via ports such as. Each major route involved transhipping to pack animal caravans, travel through desert country and risk of bandits and extortionate tolls by local potentiates. Southern coastal route past the rough country in the southern ( and today) was significant, and the built several shallow canals to service the trade, one more or less along the route of today's, and another from the to the, both shallow works that were swallowed up by huge in antiquity. In the modern western countries, the European 'Age of Sail' is the period in which and were both dominated. The age of mostly coincided with the, from the 15th to the 18th century.

After the 17th century, English naval maps stopped using the term of for the. From 15th to the 18th centuries, the period saw sailing ships carry settlers to many parts of the world in one of the most important in recorded history. This period was marked by extensive exploration and colonization efforts on the part of European kingdoms.

The, developed in the 18th century, made more accurate charting of nautical position possible. Notable individuals [ ].

The in 1571 was a military leader whose most famous victory was in the naval in 1571. Philip had appointed Juan to command the of the which was pitted against the. Juan, by dint of leadership ability and charisma, was able to unite this disparate coalition and inflict a historic defeat upon the Ottomans and their allies in the. His role in the battle is commemorated in the poem '. Was an officer and later in the. In 1639, during the, Tromp defeated a large fleet bound for at the, marking the end of Spanish naval power.

In a preliminary battle, the, Tromp was the first fleet commander known to deliberately use tactics. His flagship in this period was Aemilia. In the of 1652–1653 Tromp commanded the Dutch fleet in the battles of,, and. In the last of these, he was killed by a sharpshooter in the rigging of 's ship. His acting flag captain,, on kept up fleet morale by not lowering Tromp's standard, pretending Tromp was still alive. Was a Commander in Chief of the and Danish navy.

In 1656 he participated in the relief of (). In 1658 it was discovered he had used his ships to trade in luxury goods; as a result he was fined and not allowed to have an active command until 1662. Just before the he was promoted to on 29 January 1665; at the he prevented total catastrophe by taking over fleet command to allow the escape of the larger part of the fleet. In 1676 he became Admiral-General of the Danish navy and Knight in the. He defeated the Swedish navy in the, his only victory as a fleet commander.

And in Tahiti, commanded by was a and. He was appointed governor and commander-in-chief of the of in 1744. In 1758, he and attacked French posts around the mouth of the and destroyed all of the French fishing stations along the northern shores of what is now and along the. Was a admiral who held sea commands during the and the.

During the final years of the latter conflict he served as. During the Seven Years' War he saw constant service.

He was in North America in 1755, on the coast of France in 1756, was detached on a cruise to reduce the French settlements on the west coast of Africa in 1758, and his ship Torbay (74) was the first to get into action in the in 1759. In 1757 he had formed part of the court martial which had condemned Admiral, but was active among those who endeavoured to secure a pardon for him; but neither he nor those who had acted with him could produce any serious reason why the sentence should not be carried out. When joined in 1762 he was sent as second in command with Sir in the expedition which took. His health suffered from the fever which carried off an immense proportion of the soldiers and sailors, but the £25,000 of prize money which he received freed him from the unpleasant position of younger son of a family ruined by the extravagance of his father. Was a naval officer of the.

During the he was promoted to. In the, Hawke replaced Admiral as commander in the in 1756. Was a British admiral.

During the rebellion in North America, Howe was known to be sympathetic to the colonists – he had in prior years sought the acquaintance of, who was a friend of Howe's sister, a popular lady in London society. During his career, Howe displayed a tactical uncommon originality. His performance was unexcelled even by, who, like Howe's other successors, was served by more highly trained squadrons and benefitted from Howe's example. Was a famous for his participation in the, most notably in the, a decisive British victory in the war, where he lost his life. Nelson was noted for his considerable ability to inspire and bring out the best in his men, to the point that it gained a name: 'The Nelson Touch'.

His actions during these wars meant that before and after his death he was revered like few military figures have been throughout British history. Was a contemporary and close friend of Horatio Nelson. Davison is responsible for several acts that glorified Nelson's public image. These included the creation of a medal commemorating the victory at the and the creation of the at his estate at, Northumberland. As a close friend of the Admiral he acted as an intermediary when Nelson's marriage to his wife, fell apart due in large part to his affair with. The in 1805 in 1778 was engaged in the, and in the following year his ship was wrecked on the hostile coast. His men, however, entrenched themselves, and were in the end brought off safely.

Parker was with his father at the Dogger Bank, and with in the two actions in the. In 1793, having just become rear admiral, he served under at and in, and two years later, now a, he took part, under, in the indecisive fleet actions on 13 March 1795 and the 13 July 1795. From 1796 to 1800 he was in command at and ably conducted the operations in the. Was a British naval officer who fought during the, the, and the Napoleonic Wars. Pellew is remembered as an officer and a gentleman of great courage and leadership, earning his land and titles through courage, leadership and skill – serving as a paradigm of the versatility and determination of Naval Officers during the Napoleonic Wars., a French statesman, was the under King.

Sartine inherited a strong, resurrected by after the disasters of the when France lost,, and, and which would later defeat the in the. Was an admiral of the British Royal Navy, notable for his victory at the. In 1801 he was raised to the rank of, was created a baronet, and received the command of a small squadron which was destined to watch the movements of the Spanish fleet.

Between 6 and 12 July he performed a brilliant piece of service, in which after a first repulse at Algeciras he routed a much superior combined force of French and Spanish ships at the Battle of Algeciras. For his services Saumarez received the and the. During the (1801–07) was 1st lieutenant of, and and was taken prisoner when Philadelphia ran aground in harbor 31 October 1803. After his release 3 June 1805 he remained in the as acting captain of and later captain of Enterprise. He was in charge of the naval forces at 1808–1810.

As commander of in the, Captain Porter achieved fame by capturing the first British warship of the conflict,, 13 August 1812 as well as several merchantmen. In 1813 he sailed Essex around and cruised in the warring on British whalers. On 28 March 1814 Porter was forced to surrender off after an unequal contest with the frigates and and only when his ship was too disabled to offer any resistance. Spanish and English Armadas [ ]. Main articles: and The was the fleet that sailed against under the command of the in 1588.

The Spanish Armada was sent by King, who had been king consort of England until the death of his wife thirty years earlier. The purpose of the expedition was to escort the army of from the across the for a landing in south-east England. Once the army had suppressed English support for the — part of the — it was intended to cut off attacks against in the and the Atlantic. It was also hoped to reverse the Protestant revolution in England, and to this end the expedition was supported by, with the promise of a subsidy should it make land. The command of the fleet was originally entrusted to Alvaro de Bazan, a highly experienced naval commander who died a few months before the fleet sailed from Lisbon in May 1588. The Spanish Armada consisted of about 130 warships and converted merchant ships.

After forcing its way up the, it was attacked by a fleet of 200, assisted by the Dutch navy, in the North Sea at off the coastal border between and the. A attack drove the Armada ships from their safe anchorage, and in the ensuing battle the Spanish abandoned their rendezvous with Parma's army. The Spanish Armada was blown north up the east coast of England and in a hasty strategic move, attempted a return to Spain by sailing around Scotland and out into the Atlantic, past Ireland. But very severe weather destroyed a portion of the fleet, and more than 24 vessels were wrecked on the north and western coasts of Ireland, with the survivors having to seek refuge in Scotland. Of the Spanish Armada's initial complement of vessels, about 50 did not return to Spain. However, the loss to Philip's Royal Navy was comparatively small: only seven ships failed to return, and of these only three were lost to enemy action. The was a fleet of warships sent to the Iberian coast by Queen in 1589, during the (1585–1604).

It was led by Sir as admiral and Sir as general, and failed in its attempt to drive home the advantage England had won upon the defeat and dispersal of the in the previous year. With the opportunity to strike a decisive blow against the weakened Spanish lost, the failure of the expedition further depleted the crown treasury that had been so carefully restored during the long reign of. The was very costly to both sides, and Spain itself, also fighting and the, had to default on its debt repayments in 1596, following another raid on Cadiz.

But the failure of the English Armada was a turning point, and the fortunes of the various parties to this complicated conflict fluctuated until the in 1604, when a peace was agreed. Spain's rebuilt navy had quickly recovered and exceeded its pre-Armada dominance of the sea, until defeats by the fifty years later marked the beginning of its decline. With the peace, the English were able to consolidate their hold on Ireland and make a concerted effort to establish colonies in North America.

See also: North American maritime [ ] The starts in the modern sense with the first successful English colony established in 1607, on the. It languished for decades until a new wave of settlers arrived in the late 17th century and set up commercial agriculture based on tobacco. The connection between the American colonies and Europe, with shipping as its cornerstone, would continue to grow unhindered for almost two hundred years. The was formed during the in 1774–1775.

Through the efforts of the Continental Navy's apparent patron, and vigorous congressional support in the face of stiff opposition, the fleet cumulatively became relatively substantial when considering the limitations imposed upon the Patriot supply poole. The ' ' were the first of the, first authorized by the with the on March 27, 1794 at a cost of $688,888.82. Was 's first well-known hero in the. John Paul adopted the alias John Jones when he fled to his brother's home in in 1773 in order to avoid the hangman's noose in after an incident when he was accused of murdering a sailor under his command. He began using the name John Paul Jones as his brother suggested during the start of the. Though his naval career never rose above the rank of Captain in the after his victory over with the, John Paul Jones remains the first genuine American Naval hero, and a highly regarded battle commander. Was a during the, being the of the, fourteen guns.

On board for two years, he captured many prizes, becoming her commander in 1777. Was an and, notable for his history of the and for taking the first photograph of the flag that inspired. George entered the as a on 10 December 1835, serving on until 1838. Was a naval officer. Following his Revolutionary War service, he was appointed in the U.S. In January 1799, he assumed command of the 14-gun brig and took her to the to protect American commerce during the with.

Commissioned 7 June 1799, he took command of in December and sailed in January 1800 for the Pacific to provide similar protective services for Americans engaged in the trade. Given command of the 3rd Squadron, with as his, in 1803, he sailed for the and by October had promoted a treaty with and established a blockade off in the. Life at sea [ ] Shipping, whether of cargo or passengers, is a business and the duties of a ship’s captain reflect that. A captain’s first duty was to the ship’s owner and often the captain was encouraged to buy into the business with at least a one eighth share of the ship. A captain’s second duty was to the cargo itself followed thirdly by the crew. Crew were broken into two shifts that served four hour alternating watches often with all hands jointly serving the noon to 4:00 watch.

American ships would commonly alternate watches with the addition of a two-hour dog watch. Work for sailors during their shift consisted primarily of general ship maintenance, washing, sanding, painting and repairs from general wear and tear or damage from storms.

General ship operations like raising and lowering the anchor or furling and unfurling sails were done as needed. During the off shift hours, sailors could take care of their personal chores, washing and repairing clothes, sleeping and eating. Leisure time could was often spent reading, writing in journals, playing an instrument, wood carving or fancy rope work. The American Seaman’s Friend Society in New York City would loan boxes of books to ships for sailor’s use. Life aboard ship for immigrant travelers was much harsher and sometimes deadly.

Ship owners would pack as many people as they could on board to maximize profits and little government oversight existed to ensure they received proper care during the voyage. British immigrant ships would often show less care to the passengers than criminals on prison ships to Australia. In 1803 the Passenger Vessel Act in Britain limited occupancy to one person per two tons of the ship’s register. America issue stricter laws in 1819 limiting ships to a 1 to 5 ratio with fine levied should an overcrowded ship arrive at port. The Act of Feb. 1847 further increased the amount of space granted to passengers with the confiscation of a ship as the penalty for overcrowding.

War of 1812 [ ]. The destruction of the Turkish flagship at Chios by Kanaris. The Greek War of Independence was a successful war waged by the Greeks to win independence for Greece from the Ottoman Empire. Success at sea was vital for the Greeks. If they failed to counter the Ottoman Navy, it would be able to resupply the isolated Ottoman garrisons and land reinforcements from the 's Asian provinces at will, crushing the rebellion. The Greeks decided to use and found an effective weapon against the Ottoman vessels.

Conventional naval actions were also fought, at which naval commanders like,, and distinguished themselves. The early successes of the Greek fleet in direct confrontations with the Ottomans at and gave the crews confidence, and contributed greatly to the survival and success of the uprising in the Peloponnese. Despite victories at and, the Revolution was threatened with collapse until the intervention of the Great Powers in the in 1827. The Ottoman fleet was decisively defeated by the combined fleets of the, and the, effectively securing the independence of Greece. 1850 to the end of the century [ ] Most warships used steam propulsion until the advent of the gas turbine. Steamships were superseded by diesel-driven ships in the second half of the 20th century.

The ( CSN) was the of the established by an act of the on February 21, 1861. It was responsible for Confederate naval operations during the. The two major tasks of the Confederate Navy during the whole of its existence were the protection of harbors and coastlines from outside invasion, and making the war costly for the by attacking merchant ships and breaking the. Was the first senior officer of the during the. He was the first,, and full of the Navy. He is remembered in popular culture for his possibly apocryphal order at the, usually paraphrased: 'Damn the torpedoes, full speed ahead!' Was an officer in the United States Navy who became an in the Confederate Navy during the American Civil War.

He was the captain of the (formerly ) during the in Virginia. Cough Assist Respironics Manual. He climbed to the top deck of Virginia and began furiously firing toward shore with a as was shelled. He soon was brought down by a 's to the thigh.

He would eventually recover from his leg wound. He never did get to command Virginia against. That honor went to. But Buchanan had handed the US Navy the worst defeat it would take until. Was an officer in the United States Navy from 1826 to 1860 and the Confederate States Navy from 1860 to 1865. During the American Civil War he was captain of the famous commerce raider, taking a record fifty-five. Late in the war he was promoted to admiral and also served briefly as a in the.

In Italy, was an admiral and commander of the fleet at the. He commanded the fleet from 1860 to 1861, and saw action in the struggle for.

After unification he was elected to the legislature; he became Minister of Marine in 1862 and in 1865 he was nominated a Senator. However, his career was marred during the when he commanded the Italian fleet at Lissa. After the defeat, he was condemned for incapacity, and discharged.

Again in America, was an officer in the United States Navy during the American Civil War and the. He commanded the at the,, and when war with was deemed inevitable, he received orders to proceed to, with all haste. After a most remarkable voyage of over 14,000 miles (23,000 km), around, he joined the American fleet in waters on May 26, and on July 3 commanded his ship at the destruction of 's squadron. Was an admiral of the United States Navy, best known for his victory (without the loss of a single life of his own forces due to combat; one man died of a heart attack) at the during the Spanish–American War. He was also the only person in the history of the United States to have attained the rank of, the most senior rank in the United States Navy. Was an officer in the United States Navy during the American Civil War.

Drivers License Renewal Lake County Florida. He commanded during the in 1846. In 1856, he commissioned, the ship that would later become CSS Virginia.

Was a shipbuilding executive,, and political activist. Nixon graduated first in his class from the Naval Academy in 1882 and was sent to study naval architecture at the Royal Naval College where, again, he graduated first in the class in 1885. In 1890, with help from assistant naval constructor, he designed the Indiana-class battleships which included, and USS Oregon. Was the at the Battle of Manila Bay (May 1, 1898), a decisive battle of the. At the outbreak of the Spanish–American War, Montojo was in command of the Spanish Squadron that was destroyed by the U.S.

Asiatic Squadron in the Battle of Manila Bay on May 1, 1898. Montojo was wounded during this battle, as was also one of his two sons who were participating in this battle.

Under George Dewey decisively defeated Spain's Pacific fleet, at anchor in Manila Bay, the Philippines. Most of the seven Spanish vessels sank or surrendered. 20th century [ ] In the 20th century, the and came to replace the steam engine in most ship applications. Trans-oceanic travel, and, was a particularly important application, with steam powered replacing sailing ships, then culminating in the massive which included the. The event with the Titanic lead to the. Maritime events of World War I [ ].

Main articles:,, and At the start of the war, the German Empire had scattered across the globe. Some of them were subsequently used to attack Allied merchant shipping. The British systematically hunted them down, though not without some embarrassment from its inability to protect allied shipping. For example, the detached light cruiser, part of the East-Asia squadron stationed at Tsingtao, seized or destroyed 15 merchantmen, as well as sinking a Russian cruiser and a French destroyer. However, the bulk of the German East-Asia squadron – consisting of the armoured cruisers and, light cruisers and and two transport ships – did not have orders to raid shipping and was instead underway to Germany when it was lost at the in December 1914. Soon after the outbreak of hostilities, Britain initiated a naval of Germany, preventing supplies from reaching its ports.

The strategy proved effective, cutting off vital military and civilian supplies, although this blockade violated generally accepted international law codified by international agreements. A blockade of stationed ships within a three-mile (5 km) radius was considered legitimate, however Britain mined international waters to prevent any ships from entering entire sections of ocean, causing danger to even neutral ships.

Though there was limited response to this tactic, some expected a better response for German's aim with its unrestricted submarine warfare. German attempted to cut the supply lines between North America and Britain. The nature of submarine warfare meant that attacks often came without warning, giving the crews of the merchant ships little hope of survival.

After the infamous sinking of the passenger ship in 1915, Germany promised not to target passenger liners. In 1916 the United States launched a protest over a cross-channel passenger ferry sinking,. Finally, in early 1917 Germany adopted a policy of, realizing the Americans would eventually enter the war. Germany sought to strangle Allied sea lanes before the U.S. Could transport a large army overseas. The U-boat threat lessened in 1917, when merchant ships entered escorted by destroyers. This tactic made it difficult for U-boats to find targets.

The accompanying destroyers might sink a submerged submarine with. The losses to submarine attacks were reduced significantly. But the convoy system slowed the flow of supplies. The solution to the delays was a massive program to build new freighters. Various troop ships were too fast for the submarines and did not have to travel the North Atlantic in convoys. The First World War also saw the first use of in combat, with launching in a successful raid against the hangars at in July 1918.

Maritime events of World War II [ ] Battle of the Atlantic [ ]. Main article: In the, German attempted to cut supply lines to the United Kingdom by sinking merchant ships. In the first four months of the war they sank more than 110 vessels.

In addition to supply ships, the U-boats occasionally attacked British and Canadian warships. One U-boat sank the British, while another managed to sink the in her home anchorage of. In the summer of 1941, the Soviet Union entered the war on the side of the Allies. Although the Soviets had tremendous reserves in manpower, they had lost much of their equipment and manufacturing base in the first few weeks following the German invasion. The Western Allies attempted to remedy this by sending, which travelled from the United Kingdom and the United States to the northern ports of the Soviet Union - and.

The treacherous route around the of Norway was the site of many battles as the Germans continually tried to disrupt the convoys using U-boats, bombers, and surface ships. Following the entry of the United States into the war in December 1941, U-boats sank shipping along the and, the waters around, the, and the. They were initially so successful that this became known among U-boat crews as the. Eventually, the institution of shore and an interlocking convoy system resulted in a drop in attacks and U-boats shifted their operations back to the mid-Atlantic.

The turning point of the took place in early 1943 as the Allies refined their, effectively making use of new technology to counter the U-Boats. The Allies produced ships faster than they were sunk, and lost fewer ships by adopting the system. Improved meant that the of a typical U-boat crew would be measured in months. The vastly improved appeared as the war was ending, but too late to affect the outcome.

In December 1943, the last major sea battle between the and Nazi Germany's took place. At the, the German battleship, was sunk by,, and several destroyers. Pacific War [ ]. Japanese battleships, and (more distant) was the key strategy to bypass heavily fortified positions and instead concentrate the limited Allied resources on strategically important islands that were not well defended but capable of supporting the drive to the main islands of Japan. This strategy was possible in part because the Allies used submarine and air attacks to blockade and isolate Japanese bases, weakening their garrisons and reducing the Japanese ability to resupply and reinforce. Most Japanese soldiers killed in the Pacific died of starvation, and Japan used its submarine fleet to try to resupply them.

Hard-fought battles on the of,, and others resulted in horrific casualties on both sides, but finally produced a Japanese retreat. Faced with the loss of most of their experienced pilots, the Japanese increased their use of tactics in an attempt to create unacceptably high casualties for the. After the turning point of the Pacific where a third of the fleet was hit in the, the recommended various positions for and against an in 1945. Some staff proposed to force a Japanese surrender through a total naval blockade or air raids.

See also:,,, and Latter half of the 20th century [ ] In the latter half of the 20th century, various vessels, notably,, and, made use of. And augmented existing navigational technology.

Various were set up in international action. The set up blockades of the prior to the 1956 and the.

The set up a blockade of during the in 1962. The set up a sea blockade of the since the outbreak of the (2000) and up to the present.

The blockades of some or all the shores of at various times during the (1975–1990), the, and the - resumed during the. Cuban Missile Crisis [ ]. Main article: Though controversial within the United States, a process of handing the lead to control of the by the. It was effective at noon on December 31, 1999. Before this handover, the government of Panama held an international bid to negotiate a 25-year contract for operation of the Canal's (chiefly two facilities at the Atlantic and Pacific outlets), which was won by the firm, a -based shipping concern whose owner is the wealthiest man in Asia.

One of the conditions on the handover to the Panama Canal Authority by the United States was the permanent neutrality of the Canal and the explicit statements that allowed the United States to come back at any time. 21st century [ ].

One of the corvettes. Since the turn of the millennium, the construction of have occurred. These are ships which employs construction techniques in an effort to ensure that it is harder to detect by one or more of, visual,, and infrared methods. These techniques borrow from technology, although some aspects such as wake reduction are unique to stealth ships' design. Some of the major social changes of this period include women becoming admirals in defensive navies, being allowed to work on submarines, and being appointed captains of cruise ships. Map showing the extent of Somali pirate attacks on shipping vessels between 2005 and 2010. Seaborne piracy against transport vessels remains a significant issue (with estimated worldwide losses of US$13 to $16 billion per year), particularly in the waters between the Red Sea and Indian Ocean, off the Somali coast, and also in the and Singapore, which are used by over 50,000 commercial ships a year.

Modern pirates favor small boats and taking advantage of the small number of crew members on modern cargo vessels. They also use large vessels to supply the smaller attack/boarding vessels. Modern pirates can be successful because a large amount of international commerce occurs via shipping. Major shipping routes take cargo ships through narrow bodies of water (such as the and the ) making them vulnerable to be overtaken and boarded by small. Other active areas include the and the. As usage increases, many of these ships have to lower cruising speeds to allow for navigation and traffic control, making them prime targets for piracy. The (IMB) maintains statistics regarding pirate attacks dating back to 1995.

Their records indicate hostage-taking overwhelmingly dominates the types of violence against seafarers. For example, in 2006, there were 239 attacks, 77 crew members were kidnapped and 188 taken hostage but only 15 of the pirate attacks resulted in murder. In 2007 the attacks rose by 10% to 263 attacks. There was a 35% increase on reported attacks involving guns. Crew members that were injured numbered 64 compared to just 17 in 2006.

That number does not include hostages/kidnapping where they were not injured. •, editor in chief,, (Oxford, 2007), volume 1, introduction.

• See • It is online • It is • This began with the Maritime History Group, Working men who got wet: Proceedings of the fourth conference of the Atlantic Canada Shipping Project, July 24-July 26, 1980, (Memorial University of Newfoundland, St John, 1980) • See Yearbooks for 2009–2012, especially in the 2009 volume, article by Gijs Mom, Colin Divall and Peter Lyth, 'Towards a Paradigm Shift? A Decade of Transport and Mobility History,' • •. • oversaw the preparations and funding of an expedition of five ships, each measuring seventy feet long, and with several sails.

Various others exist, also. Hobson (2004), The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation, p. Hobson (2004), The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation, p. 29–30,,. • Liz Burlingame (Aug 23, 2013).. The Weather Channel. • Journal of African History pg.50 by John Donnelly Fage and Roland Anthony Oliver • East Africa and its Invaders pg.38 • East Africa and the Indian Ocean By Edward A. Alpers pg 66 •, pp.

• Rankin, Rebecca B., Cleveland Rodgers (1948). New York: the World's Capital City, Its Development and Contributions to Progress. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list () • Robert O.

Collins, Historical Problems of Imperial Africa, (Princeton: Markus Wiener Publishers, 1994), 7 • 2005-01-04 at the., from The Golden Hind. Retrieved February 5, 2006.

Routledge & son. • The Nelson Society (2007-02-15).. Retrieved 2007-03-02. • Herbermann, Charles, ed. New York: Robert Appleton Company.

• Hill, Richard. War at Sea in the Ironclad Age; p.17 • Sondhaus, Lawrence. Naval Warfare 1815–1914.

Pp73–4 • Sondhaus, p. 86 • Belyk, Robert C. Great Shipwrecks of the Pacific Coast.

New York: Wiley, 2001. • Jehl, Francis, Henry Ford Museum and Greenfield Village, Whitefish, Mass, Kessinger Publishing, 1 July 2002, page 564 • Dalton, Anthony Heritage House Publishing Company, 1 Feb 2011 - 128 pages • Davis, p. Chriscunard.com – via. Taylor, 'Audacious Cruise of the Emden', The Quarterly Journal of Military History, Volume 19, Number 4, Summer 2007, pp. 39–47 • ^ • Lance Edwin Davis, Stanley L. Engerman, Naval blockades in peace and war: an economic history since 1750. Page 229 • Carlisle, R. New York: Facts On File, Inc.

• Schmidt, D. The folly of war: American foreign policy, 1898–2005. New York: Algora Pub. Page 77 • Such as • Scheck, R. Alfred von Tirpitz and German right-wing politics: 1914–1930. Atlantic Highlands: Humanities Press.

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